Subjective well-being determinants in Russia: a regional perspective

This article reveals that, despite Russian regions being very different from each other when it comes to a great many socio-economic and socio-cultural properties (population income level and living standards, various features of the socio-cultural environment, social optimism, degree of religiosity and so on), those who live in regions far removed from the capital cities, given their lower level of personal income, tend to be more satisfied with their lives and demonstrate a higher level of social wellbeing, according to data from various sociological surveys. Based on empirical data, the authors argue that material aspects are not the only factors which affect subjective wellbeing in any given region. The goal of the study is to analyze the differentiation in the level of subjective wellbeing of the population of various Russian regions, which implies identifying and comparatively analyzing those factors which help interpret these differences. The primary research method is regression analysis of data from sociological surveys conducted in 2012 using the World Values Survey method in nine regions and towns of federal significance: Moscow, Saint- Petersburg, Leningrad Province, Tambov, Tatarstan Republic, Chuvashia Republic, the Altai Krai, Kabardino-Balkaria Republic, Bashkortostan Republic. The analysis showed that there is indeed a connection between one’s personal income level and their subjective wellbeing, while there is no such connection between one’s subjective wellbeing and how wealthy their region is. This could be explained by the fact that people are more concerned with their personal income level than their region’s income. Aside from income level, there are other factors which determine subjective wellbeing in any given region. Moscow is considered to be the wealthiest region, however, it also has the highest level of income inequality. Both individual income and income level in comparison to the reference group considerably affect respondents’ subjective wellbeing, regardless of their region of residence. However, individual income has a stronger influence. That said it is in Moscow where subjective evaluation of one’s income level and satisfaction with one’s material status affect subjective wellbeing to the greatest extent, which is due to the fact that in Moscow both living standards and one’s sense of subjective inequality are somewhat higher. The influence of other socio-demographic factors also varies from region to region. For the most part this study confirms Ronald Inglehart’s concept of material factors playing a significant role in subjective wellbeing.

Subjective well-being, life satisfaction, regional differences, Russian regions, World Values Survey, relative income, reference group income

Alesina A., Di Tella R., MacCulloch R. Inequality and happiness: are Europeans and Americans different? Journal of Public Economics, 2008: 88 (9–10): 2009–2042. DOI: 10.3386/ w8198 

Brockmann H., Delhey J., Welzel C., Yuan H. The China puzzle: falling happiness in a rising economy. Journal of Happiness Studies, 2009: 10 (4): 387–405. DOI: 10.1007/s10902-008-9095-4 

Clark A., Oswald A.J. Satisfaction & Comparison Income. Journal of Public Economics. 1996: 61 (3): 359–381. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2727(95)01564-7 

D’Ambrosio C., Frick J.R. Income satisfaction and relative deprivation: An empirical link. Social Indicators Research, 2007: 81 (3): 497–519. DOI:10.1007/s11205-006-0020-0 

Diener E. Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 19841: 95 (3): 542–575. 

Diener E., Diener C. The wealth of nations revisited: Income and quality of life. Social Indicators Research,1995: 36 (3): 275–286. 

Diener E., Diener M., Diener C. Factors predicting the subjective well-being of nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1995: 69 (5): 851–864. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.851 

Easterlin R. Does economic growth improve the human lot? Some empirical evidence. In: Nations and Households in Economic Growth: Essays in Honour of Moses Abramovitz. Ed. by P. David, M. Reder., New York, Academic Press, 1974: 89–125. 

Easterlin R. Income and happiness: towards a unified theory. Economic Journal, 2001: 111 (473): 465–484. 

Easterlin R. Will raising the incomes of all increase the happiness of all? Journal of Economic Behaviour and Organization, 1995: 27 (1): 35–48. 

Graham C., Pettinato S. Frustrated achievers: Winners, losers and subjective well-Being in new market economies. Journal of Development Studies, 2002: 38 (4): 100–140. DOI: 10.1080/00220380412331322431 

Hagerty M.R., Veenhoven R. Wealth and happiness revisited – Growing national income does go with greater happiness. Social Indicators Research, 2003: 64 (1): 1–27. DOI: 10.1023/A:1024790530822 

Haller M., Hadler M. How social relations and structures can produce happiness and unhappiness: An international comparative analysis. Social Indicators Research, 2006: 75 (2): 169–216. DOI: 10.1007/s11205-004-6297-y 

Hyman H.H. Introduction. In: Readings in Reference Group Theory and Research. Ed. by H.H. Hyman, E. Singer. New York, The Free Press, 1968: 3–21. 

Inglehart R., Haerpfer C., Moreno A., Welzel C., Kizilova K., Diez-Medrano J., Lagos M., Norris P., Ponarin E., Puranen B. et al. (eds.). World Values Survey: Round Six – Country- Pooled Datafile 2010–2014. Madrid: JD Systems Institute, 2014. Available at: http://www. worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSDocumentationWV [accessed: 19.05.20]. 

Inglehart R.F. Changing values among Western publics from 1970 to 2006. Western European Politics, 2008: 31 (1–2): 130–146. 

Inglehart R.F. Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Societies. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1990: 504. 

Inglehart R.F. Globalization and postmodern values. The Washington Quarterly, 2000; 23(1): 215–228. 

Inglehart R.F., Welzel C. Modernization, Cultural Change and Democracy. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2005: 344. 

Kelly H.H. Two Functions of Reference Groups. In: Readings in Reference Group Theory and Research. Ed. by H.H. Hyman, E. Singer. New York, The Free Press, 1968: 199–206. 

Maslow A.H. A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 1943: 50 (4): 370–396. 

Merton R.K., Kitt A. Contributions to the theory of reference group behavior. Glencoe, Illinois, Free Press, 1950. 

Rating of social well-being of Russian regions. Second issue. Civil Society Development Foundation, 2013. Available at: http://civilfund.ru/mat/44 [accessed 06.01.2020] (In Russ.). 

Regional indices of social moods. Procedures of index construction and final results. Moscow, Zircon, 2008. Available at: http://www.zircon.ru/upload/iblock/891/080616.pdf [accessed 06.01.2020] (In Russ.). 

Regions of Russia. Socio-economic indicators – 2012. The Rosstat Annual Report. Available at: http://www.gks.ru/bgd/regl/B12_14p/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d01/05-08.htm [accessed 06.01.2020] (In Russ.). 

Runciman W.G. Relative deprivation and social justice: a study of attitudes to social inequality in twentieth-century England. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966: 352. 

Veenhoven R. Is happiness relative? Social Indicators Research, 1991: 24 (1): 1–34. DOI: 10.1007/BF00292648 

Veenhoven R., Hagerty M. R. Rising happiness in nations 1946–2004: A reply to Easterlin. Social Indicators Research, 2006: 79 (3): 421–436. DOI: 10.1007/s11205-005-5074-x

Yitzhaki S. Relative deprivation and economic welfare. European Economic Review, 1982: 17 (1): 99–113.